In general, bacteria are small single cell organisms. A bacterial cell is found in each and every place of the earth. Study of bacterial cells is known as bacteriology. Bacteriology is the sub field of microbiology which involves identification, classification and characterization of various bacterial cells. In our daily life microbiology is useful, for example during the formation of curd at that time lactobacillus bacteria forms curd from milk.
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The word microbiology, made up of 'micro' and 'biology', 'micro' means small in size and 'biology' means study of living things. Discovery of the microscope and cell increases the importance of the microbiology field. Bacterial cell was identified by scientist Antonivan Leeuwenhoek, due to this discovery it is known as the father of microbiology and Aristotle is the father of biology.
Bacterial diagrams illustrate the brief structure of bacteria with its nomenclature.
Generally bacteria are divided into two types, based on gram staining. 1. Gram positive bacteria, and 2. Gram negative bacteria.
1. Gram positive bacteria characteristics
A. Outer membrane: Gram positive bacteria do not have an outer membrane, while in Gram negative bacteria outer membrane is present.
B. Color: Gram positive bacteria appear blue or purple under the microscope.
C. Cell wall: Cell wall is the structure surrounding the cell’s membrane. In Gram positive bacteria cell walls are made of multiple layers of molecules, less lipid and protein. Cell wall protects the bacteria from killing or any type of damage
D. Peptidoglycan layer: In Gram positive bacteria, the peptidoglycan is 20 to 80 nm (nanometer) thick. whereas this peptidoglycan layer is only 2 to 3 nm thick in Gram negative bacteria.
E. Shape: Gram positive bacteria come in different shapes, such as cocci shaped (spherical or round shape), bacilli shaped (rod shape), branching like arrangement and filaments like arrangement (threadlike shape).
2. Gram negative bacteria characteristics
Gram negative bacteria have different structures. Gram negative bacteria are made up of a thinner layer of peptidoglycan. They also have a lipid membrane at outer region and protects the cell from the surrounding environment. Due to this lipid membrane layer, they are more resistant to antibiotics and other drugs. Although Gram negative bacteria are more challenging to treat by drug or chemical compound.
Bacteria are used due to their following nature
Fermentative nature
Acid production
Antibiotics production
Metabolites production
Bacteria use as a probiotics
Helps in curd formation
It able to degrade complex nutrients
It produce vitamins, amino acid
Two types of names used for bacteria, first, regional name or generic name and second is globally available name or scientific name. Scientific name of bacteria requires specific identification of the particular bacteria. The International committee on systematic prokaryotes (ICPS) gives scientific names to the bacteria. The International committee on systematic prokaryotes follows a binomial nomenclature system. Scientific name of bacteria contains genus and species. Generally Latin is the standard language used to give names to bacteria.
Following are the some examples of bacteria
Escherichia coli
Clostridium botulinum
Lactobacillus species
Actinobacter
Bacillus stearothermophilus
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Salmonella typhi
Generally all bacteria have cell walls and cell membranes. Cell membrane made up of lipid bi layer which provides fluidity to the cell membrane, And cell wall made up of peptidoglycan which provides rigid structure to the cell. Cell wall is the thick structure then the cell membrane. Cell membrane covers the cytoplasmic region of the bacterial cell, the cytoplasmic region reached with DNA, protein, ribosome, vacuoles and storage body. In some bacteria capsules are present after the bacterial cell wall, which protects bacteria from invaders. Some bacteria possess a long tail-like structure which is known as flagella and its provides motility to bacterial cells.
Mainly spherical, road like and curved shape found in bacteria. If bacteria have spherical structure then it is known as coccus or cocci bacteria. If bacteria contain road like structure then it is known as bacillus bacteria. And if bacteria have curved shapes then it is known as vibrio or spirillum bacteria. If bacteria do not contain any above shape or contain irregular shape then it is known as pleomorphic bacteria.
According to Gram staining, Bacteria are divided into Gram positive Bacteria and Gram negative bacteria. Gram staining differentiate a bacterium in Gram positive or Gram negative nature based on cell wall composition of that particular bacteria.
Based on their effect on humans, bacteria are categorized into beneficial bacteria and harmful bacteria. Beneficial bacteria live on the body surface and it is also known as human microbial flora. And pathogenic bacteria are able to cause disease to the human body such as tuberculosis and Syphilis disease caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis and Treponema pallidum respectively.
Based on present or absence of flagella, Bacteria can be divided into motile bacteria and non-motile bacteria.
Fascinating bacteria means bacteria possessed unique characteristics, which are not shown by other bacteria. For example pigmented appearance, unique structure, able to digest complex nutrients, and surviving in extreme conditions.
A bacteria which can live in extreme conditions from the human point of view. Extreme conditions include High temperature, Low temperature, High pH, Low pH, High pressure, High salt concentration. Example of extremophiles shown in below table.
Name of extreme condition | Bacterial name which survive in a specific conditions | Example of bacteria |
High temperature | Thermophile | Thermus aquaticus |
High pH condition | Alkaliphiles | Bacillus, Pseudomonas. |
Low temperature | Psychrophiles | Psychroflexus, Psychrobacter |
Low pH | Acidophiles | Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans |
High pressure | Piezophiles | Halomonas salaria |
High salt concentration | Halophiles | Salinibacter |
Any science student takes a microbiology course after completing 12th science. Microbiology course completed in 3 degree level, Bachelor degree, Master degree and Doctor of philosophy level. After completing Masters, students can do research at scientist level. Bachelor degree is a three year program, and it is called an undergraduate program. Master degree is a two year program and it is called a postgraduate program. Doctor of philosophy is a two to five year program, this time duration depends on chosen subject.
Isolation and Identification techniques used to find out novel bacterial species from different environments. Isolation means to obtain a bacterium from a diverse group of microbes. Isolation can be done by a preliminary process for example screening process. Primary screening and secondary screening is the type of screening which is used in isolation of microbes. This test only gives information about whether our desired product is formed or not.
Identification means to identify their morphological characteristics, biochemical test characteristics, serotype characteristics, antibiotic inhibition characteristics etc. Biochemical tests include various types of tests such as catalase test, Mannitol salt Agar test, Blood agar test, coagulase test, Methyl red and voges proskauer test, oxidase test etc. Biochemical tests give information about metabolic information of bacteria and nutritional requirements of bacteria.
Thermus aquaticus, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Psychroflexus, Psychrobacter, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, Halomonas salaria, Salinibacter are the examples of extremophiles.
For fermentative process, Use in acid production, For antibiotics production, For metabolites production, Probiotics formation, use in curd formation, Use in production of vitamins, amino acid.
Fascinating bacteria means bacteria possessed unique characteristics, which are not shown by other normal bacteria.
Aristotle is the father of biology.
Bacteria are small in size and single cell organisms which are not seen by the naked eye.
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Correct Answer: Serious
Solution : The correct option is the first option.
Explanation:
The tone of the speaker is serious as it discusses various factors influencing subway air pollution, particularly focusing on the sources of particulate matter, health risks for subway workers, and the mix of particles within the subway system.
The language used is factual and analytical, examining the potential health impacts without conclusive evidence and citing observations and studies. There's a sense of concern and caution regarding the potential health risks associated with subway air pollution, which contributes to an overall serious tone in the passage.
Therefore, the correct answer is serious.
Correct Answer: It inactivates them
Solution : The fourth option is the correct choice.
The passage in the third paragraph mentions that freezing inactivates the enzymes and microorganisms. This helps to preserve food.
Correct Answer: Generating ventilation systems.
Solution : The correct choice is the first option.
The passage mentions factors influencing subway air pollution. It also discusses the observation that employees working on platforms with higher particulate matter concentrations tend to have higher levels of risk markers for cardiovascular disease. Therefore, improving ventilation systems in the subway environment could be a practical measure to reduce the health risks associated with subway life.
Therefore, generating ventilation system is the most practical way of reducing the health risk of subway life.
Correct Answer: Chemicals
Solution : The third option is the correct choice.
As stated at the start of the second paragraph, bacteria require air, optimum temperature, and moisture to be active. Thus, bacteria do not require chemicals to be active.
Correct Answer: Preservation of food
Solution : The fourth option is correct.
The given passage initially talks about the changes that take place in food articles over time. Then we are introduced to some methods to check the growth of various microorganisms inside food items. And finally, some chemicals, such as salt and vinegar, are also mentioned that help in the preservation of foods. It can be concluded that the primary theme of the passage is the preservation of food.