Buffer Solution: Definition, Equation, Formula, Questions and Examples

Buffer Solution: Definition, Equation, Formula, Questions and Examples

Edited By Shivani Poonia | Updated on Jul 02, 2025 08:05 PM IST

Buffer solutions, is vary important in building the pH stability in chemical and biological systems,This discovery was not done by ant single scientist at any particular time. The idea of buffers slowly grow with time and expand as per the need. The early work of the buffer solution were the idea of maintaining a stable pH can be go back to the 19th century. Buffer Solutions is a concept developed by Lawrence Joseph Henderson and Karl Albert Hasselbalch in the early 20th century.

This Story also Contains
  1. Buffer Solution
  2. ACTION OF BASIC BUFFER
  3. Some Solved Examples
  4. Summary
Buffer Solution: Definition, Equation, Formula, Questions and Examples
Buffer Solution: Definition, Equation, Formula, Questions and Examples

Henderson developed the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation in 1908, which depict the pH of a buffer solution in relation to the concentration of its acidic and basic components. Hasselbalch, in 1916, further defined his work, leading to the equation being named after both scientists. Why Buffer Solutions Are Important it is important because the buffers are important because they helps to maintain a relatively constant pH in a solution despite the addition of small amounts of acids or bases. This property is vital in many chemical processes, biological systems (such as blood), and industrial applications.

Buffer Solution

A solution whose pH does not change very much when H+(H3O+) or OH- are added to it is referred to as a buffer solution.
A buffer solution is prepared by mixing a weak and its salt having common anion(i.e HA + HB forms an acidic buffer) or a weak base and its salt having common cation(i.e BOH + BA forms a basic buffer).
It can be prepared to have a desired value of pH by controlling the amounts of acids and their salts in case of acidic buffer and of bases and their salts in basic buffer.

Acidic buffer:

$\quad \mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COOH}+\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COONa}$

Basic buffer :

$\quad \mathrm{NH}_4 \mathrm{OH}+\mathrm{NH}_4 \mathrm{Cl}$


Consider an acidic buffer containing an acid HA and say common ions A-. Now any H+ added to this solution within certain limits are neutralized by A- ions as:
$\mathrm{H}^{+}+\mathrm{A}^{-} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{HA}$
While the addition of OH- ions externally (within certain limits) are neutralised by acid HA as:
$\mathrm{HA}+\mathrm{OH}^{-} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{H}_2 \mathrm{O}+\mathrm{A}^{-}$
Hence in both the cases, effect of addition of H+ or OH- is almost compensated for (i.e. pH almost remains constant).

Such a system (may be acidic or basic) finds enormous use not only in industrial processes but also most importantly in biological reactions. Like the pH of normal blood is 7.4 and for good health and even for the survival, it should not change below 7.1 or greater than 7.7, the body maintains it through a buffer system made of carbonate and bicarbonate ions and H2PO4- and HPO42-. Similarly, the pH of gastric juice is kept constant in order to operate good digestive functions.

Buffer solutions can be classified into three types:

(1) Acidic Buffer Solutions

Acidic buffer solutions are the solutions that are made from a weak acid and one of its salt with a strong base.

For example: Solution of $\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COOH}$ and $\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COONa}$

It is to be noted that the pH of an acidic buffer may not be always less than 7. It depends upon the Ka values of the acid and also the concentration of the acid and the salt.


(2) Basic Buffer Solutions

Basic buffer solutions are the solutions that are made from a weak base and one of its salt with a strong acid.

For example: Solution of $\mathrm{NH}_4 \mathrm{OH}$ and $\mathrm{NH}_4 \mathrm{Cl}$

It is to be noted that the pH of an basic buffer may not be more less than 7. It depends upon the Kb values of the base and also the concentration of the salt and base.


(3) Simple Buffer Solutions

Simple buffer solutions are the solutions that are made from the salt of a weak acid and weak base.

For example: Solution of $\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COONH}_4 \mid$

It is to be noted that the pH of simple buffer may be less than, greater than or equal to 7. It depends upon the Ka and Kb values of the acid and the base.


Buffer Action:

A buffer solution resists a change in its pH on addition of small amount of acid or base. This is because there is one component which can neutralise the acid and the other component can neutralise the base

e.g $\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COOH}$ and $\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COONa}$

When small amount of base is added, then it is the acid which neutralises it

$\mathrm{OH}^{-}+\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COOH} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{H}_2 \mathrm{O}+\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COO}^{-}$

When small amount of acid is added, then it is the acetate ion which neutralises it

$\mathrm{HCl}+\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COO}^{-} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COOH}+\mathrm{Cl}^{-}$

as neutralisation occurs, the $\left[\mathrm{H}^{+}\right]$or $\left[\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right]$ does not alter much in the solution and pH change is almost negligible


Cases which are not a buffer solution

(1) Solutions of Strong Acid and its salt e.g. $\mathrm{H}_2 \mathrm{SO}_4$ and $\mathrm{KHSO}_4$

(2) Solutions of Strong Base and its salt e.g. NaOH and NaCl

For a solution to be classified as a buffer solution, there must be one weak acid or base and its respective conjugate base or acid

CALCULATION OF PH OF ACIDIC BUFFER SOLUTION

When a solution contains CH3COOH and CH3COONa, then the following equilibrium will be established:$\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COOH} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COO}^{-}+\mathrm{H}^{+}$

The equilibrium equation for the given system can be calculated using the following equation:


$
\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{a}}=\frac{\left[\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COO}^{-}\right]\left[\mathrm{H}^{+}\right]}{\left[\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COOH}\right]}=\frac{[\mathrm{Salt}]\left[\mathrm{H}^{+}\right]}{[\mathrm{Acid}]}
$

$\left[\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COO}^{-}\right]$is the concentration of salt $\left[\mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{COOH}\right]$ is the initial concentration of acid

Rearranging the above equation, we get

$\begin{aligned} & {\left[\mathrm{H}^{+}\right]=\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{a}} \frac{[\text { Acid }]}{[\text { Salt }]}} \\ & -\log _{10}\left[\mathrm{H}^{+}\right]=-\log _{10} \mathrm{~K}_{\mathrm{a}}-\log _{10}[\text { Acid }]+\log _{10}[\text { Salt }] \\ & \mathrm{pH}=\mathrm{pK}_{\mathrm{a}}+\log _{10} \frac{[\text { Salt }]}{\text { Acid }}\end{aligned}$

This equation is also known as the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.

Some examples

  • Find the pH of a solution having 0.1M CH3COOH(Ka = 10-5) and 0.2M CH3COONa.

    We know that pH of a solution is given as:

    $\begin{aligned} & \mathrm{pH}=\mathrm{pK}_{\mathrm{a}}+\log _{10} \frac{[\text { Salt }]}{\text { Acid }} \\ & \text { Thus, } \mathrm{pH}=-\log _{10} \mathrm{~K}_{\mathrm{a}}+\log _{10} \frac{[0.2]}{[0.1]} \\ & \Rightarrow \mathrm{pH}=-\log _{10} 10^{-5}+\log _{10} 2 \\ & \Rightarrow \mathrm{pH}=5+0.30=5.30\end{aligned}$
  • Find the pH of a solution containing 0.25 moles of HCN(Ka = 10-5) and 0.10 moles of NaCN present in 1 litre solution.

    We know that pH of a solution is given as:
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$\begin{aligned} & \mathrm{pH}=\mathrm{pK}_{\mathrm{a}}+\log _{10} \frac{[\text { Salt }]}{\text { Acid }} \\ & \text { Thus, } \mathrm{pH}=-\log _{10} \mathrm{~K}_{\mathrm{a}}+\log _{10} \frac{[\text { Salt }]}{[\text { Acid }]} \\ & \Rightarrow \mathrm{pH}=-\log _{10} 10^{-5}+\log _{10} \frac{0.10}{0.25} \\ & \Rightarrow \mathrm{pH}=5+\log _{10} \frac{2}{5} \\ & \Rightarrow \mathrm{pH}=5-0.39=4.6\end{aligned}$

BASIC BUFFER

Basic buffer solution contains a weak base and its salt with strong acid. Some examples of basic buffers are:

  • NH4OH + NH4Cl
  • NH4OH + (NH4)2SO4
  • CH3-NH2 + [CH3-NH3+]Cl-

The pH of the basic buffer is given as:

$\mathrm{pOH}=\mathrm{pK}_{\mathrm{b}}+\log _{10} \frac{[\text { Salt }]}{[\text { Base }]}$

We already know that pH = 14 - pOH. Thus can be calculated using this equation.

For example: basic buffer we have:

$\begin{aligned} & \mathrm{NH}_4 \mathrm{OH} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{NH}_4^{+}+\mathrm{Cl}^{-} \\ & \mathrm{NH}_4 \mathrm{Cl} \rightarrow \mathrm{NH}_4^{+} \mathrm{Cl}^{-} \quad(\text { Strong electrolyte }) \\ & \text { Thus, } \mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{b}}=\frac{\left[\mathrm{NH}_4^{+}\right]\left[\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right]}{\left[\mathrm{NH}_4 \mathrm{OH}\right]}\end{aligned}$

In this system:

  • [NH4OH]: Initial concentration of [NH4OH] is taken as at equilibrium negligible dissociation of NH4OH is there because of common-ion effect.
  • [NH4+]: The concentration of NH4OH is mostly from 100% dissociation of NH4Cl.

Again, as we know:


$
\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{b}}=\frac{[\mathrm{Salt}]\left[\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right]}{\text {Base }}
$


Thus, $\left[\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right]=\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{b}} \frac{[\text { Base }]}{[\text { Salt }]}$
Using $\log$ on both sides, we get :

$
\begin{aligned}
& -\log _{10}\left[\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right]=-\log _{10} \mathrm{~K}_{\mathrm{b}}+\log _{10}[\text { Salt }]-\log _{10}[\text { Base }] \\
& \text { Hence, } \mathrm{pOH}=\mathrm{pK}_{\mathrm{b}}+\log _{10} \frac{[\text { Salt }]}{[\text { Base }]}
\end{aligned}
$

ACTION OF BASIC BUFFER

Basic buffer solution contains equimolar quantities of a weak base and its salt with strong acid. For example: ammonium hydroxide i.e. NH4OH and ammonium chloride i.e NH4Cl.

On Adding Acid: H+ release and combines with OH- of base.

On Adding Base: OH- releases and combines with NH4+ of salt.

  • On adding acid to the basic buffer, its H+ ions react with OH- ions of the base and forms H2O. Thus, in this case, solution feels that its [OH-] has decreased, thus to neutralize this effect, NH4OH dissociate in small amounts and gives [OH-] so as to restore concentration of [OH-]
  • On adding base to the basic buffer, its [OH-] ions react with NH4+ ions and forms NH4OH. In this case, the solution feels that its NH4OH concentration is increased. Thus, in this case, the reaction will not proceed forward because of common ion effect.

Recommended topic video on (Buffer Solution )


Some Solved Examples

Example.1

1.In some solutions, the concentration of H3O+ remains constant even when small amounts of strong acid or strong base are added to them. These solutions are known as :

1) Ideal solutions

2) Colloidal solutions

3) True solutions

4) (correct) Buffer solutions

Solution

The solution which resists the change in pH on dilution or with the addition of a small amount of acid or base is called a buffer solution.

Hence, the answer is the option (4).


Example.2

2.Fear and excitement generally cause one to breathe rapidly and it results in the decrease of CO2 concentration in blood. In what way will it change the pH of blood?

1)pH will increase

2)pH will decrease

3)pH will adjust to 7

4) (correct)No change

Solution

pH of blood remains same because it has a buffer solution of $\mathrm{H}_2 \mathrm{CO}_3 / \mathrm{HCO}_3^{-}$
Hence, the answer is the option(4).


Example.3

3.The pKa of a weak acid HA is 4.5. The pOH of an aqueous buffered solution of HA in which 50% of the acid is ionized is

1)7.0

2)4.5

3)2.5

4) (correct)9.5

Solution

Let us consider the dissociation equilibrium of the acid HA

$\mathrm{HA} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{H}^{+}+\mathrm{A}^{-}$

Writing the expression for the equilibrium constant

$\mathrm{k}_{\mathrm{a}}=\frac{\left[\mathrm{H}^{+}\right]\left[\mathrm{A}^{-}\right]}{[\mathrm{HA}]}$

When the acid is 50% dissociated, $\left[\mathrm{A}^{-}\right]=[\mathrm{HA}]$

$\begin{aligned} & \therefore\left[\mathrm{H}^{+}\right]=\mathrm{k}_{\mathrm{a}} \Rightarrow \mathrm{pH}=\mathrm{pk}_{\mathrm{a}} \\ & \text { Given } \mathrm{pK}_{\mathrm{a}}=4.5 \quad \therefore \mathrm{pH}=4.5 \\ & \therefore \mathrm{pOH}=14-4.5=9.5\end{aligned}$



Hence, the answer is the option (4).


Example.4

4.What volume of 0.1 M sodium formate solution should be added to 50 ml of 0.05 M formic acid to produce a buffer solution of pH = 4.0; pKa of formic acid is 3.80?

1) (correct)39.62 mL

2)39.62 L

3)396.2 mL

4)396.3 L

Solution

Suppose, Vml of 0.1 M HCOONa is mixed to 50 ml of 0.05 M HCOOH


$
[\text { Molarity }]=\frac{\text { Total millimole }}{\text { Total volume }}
$


In mixture $[\mathrm{HCOONa}]=\frac{0.1 \times \mathrm{V}}{(\mathrm{V}+50)}$

$
\begin{aligned}
& {[\mathrm{HCOOH}]=\frac{50 \times 0.05}{\mathrm{~V}+50}} \\
& \mathrm{pH}=-\log \mathrm{Ka}+\log \frac{[\text { Salt }]}{[\text { Acid }]} \\
& 4.0=3.80+\log _{10} \frac{(0.1 \times \mathrm{V})}{(\mathrm{V}+50) / 2.5 /(\mathrm{V}+50)} \\
& \mathrm{V}=39.62 \mathrm{ml}
\end{aligned}
$

Hence, the answer is the option (1).


Example.5

5. An acidic buffer is obtained by mixing:

1)100 mL of 0.1 M CH3COOH and 100 mL of 0.1 M NaOH

2) (correct)100 mL of 0.1 M HCl and 200 mL of 0.1 M CH3COONa

3)100 mL of 0.1 M CH3COOH and 200 mL of 0.1 M NaOH

4)100 mL of 0.1 M HCl and 200 mL of 0.1 M NaCl

Solution

An acidic buffer contains a weak acid and its salt.

Here, Given the weak acid is CH3COOH and its salt will be CH3COONa

So,100 mL of 0.1 M HCl = 10 meq HCl

200 mL of 0.1 M CH3COONa = 20 meq of CH3COONa

After mixing 10 meq of HCl react with 10 meq of CH3COONa then 10meq of CH3COOH form.

But from other options, the same amount of weak acid and its salt cannot be obtained.

Finally, 10 meq of CH3COOH and 10 meq of CH3COONa will be present.

So upon mixing 100ml of 0.1M HCl and 200ml of 0.1M CH3COONa, a buffer solution will be obtained.

Hence, the answer is the option (2).

Summary

The main preference of a buffer solution is to take control the pH level reasonably stable even when modest amounts of acids or bases are added. Since many chemical and biological processes are sensitive to pH variations, this is significant. The weak acid and its conjugate base, or the weak base and its conjugate acid, cooperate in a buffer solution to neutralize additional acids or bases and reduce pH variations.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. How does a buffer solution maintain a stable pH?
A buffer solution maintains a stable pH by neutralizing small additions of acid or base. When an acid is added, the conjugate base in the buffer reacts with it. When a base is added, the weak acid component of the buffer reacts with it. This way, the overall pH of the solution remains relatively constant.
2. What happens to a buffer solution when a strong acid is added?
When a strong acid is added to a buffer solution, the conjugate base component of the buffer reacts with the added H+ ions, neutralizing them. This reaction consumes some of the base, slightly decreasing the pH, but the change is much smaller than if the buffer weren't present.
3. What is the role of conjugate acid-base pairs in buffer solutions?
Conjugate acid-base pairs are essential in buffer solutions because they can readily accept or donate protons. The weak acid can donate protons to neutralize added bases, while the conjugate base can accept protons to neutralize added acids. This interplay allows the buffer to maintain a relatively stable pH.
4. How does the concentration of buffer components affect its capacity?
The concentration of buffer components directly affects its capacity. Higher concentrations of the acid-base pair increase the buffer's capacity to neutralize added acids or bases. However, the ratio of the acid to base concentrations determines the pH of the buffer, not the overall concentration.
5. What is a common misconception about buffer solutions?
A common misconception is that buffers can resist unlimited amounts of acid or base addition. In reality, buffers have a finite capacity and can be overwhelmed if too much acid or base is added, leading to significant pH changes.
6. What is a buffer solution?
A buffer solution is a mixture that can resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added. It typically consists of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or a weak base and its conjugate acid, in roughly equal concentrations.
7. Can you explain the difference between buffer capacity and buffer range?
Buffer capacity refers to the amount of acid or base a buffer can neutralize before significant pH changes occur. Buffer range is the pH range over which the buffer effectively resists pH changes, typically within ±1 pH unit of the weak acid's pKa.
8. What is the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation and how is it used in buffer solutions?
The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is: pH = pKa + log([A-]/[HA]). It relates the pH of a buffer solution to the pKa of the weak acid and the concentrations of the conjugate acid-base pair. This equation is used to calculate the pH of a buffer or to determine the ratio of acid to base needed to create a buffer with a specific pH.
9. Why are buffer solutions important in biological systems?
Buffer solutions are crucial in biological systems because they help maintain a stable pH in various bodily fluids and cellular environments. This pH stability is essential for proper enzyme function, protein structure, and many biochemical reactions that are sensitive to pH changes.
10. How do you calculate the pH of a buffer solution?
To calculate the pH of a buffer solution, use the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: pH = pKa + log([A-]/[HA]). You need to know the pKa of the weak acid and the concentrations of the conjugate acid-base pair. Plug these values into the equation to solve for pH.
11. How does ionic strength affect buffer solutions?
Ionic strength can affect buffer solutions by altering the activity coefficients of the buffer components. This can change the effective pKa of the weak acid or base, potentially shifting the pH of the buffer. High ionic strength can also affect the solubility of buffer components and may interfere with some pH measurement techniques.
12. What is the significance of the isoelectric point in relation to buffer solutions?
The isoelectric point (pI) is the pH at which a molecule, typically a protein or amino acid, has no net electrical charge. At this point, the molecule can act as a buffer. Understanding the isoelectric point is crucial when working with protein buffers or when designing buffers for biological systems where protein behavior is important.
13. What is the importance of buffer solutions in pharmaceutical formulations?
Buffer solutions are crucial in pharmaceutical formulations to maintain drug stability, control drug solubility, and ensure consistent drug performance. Many drugs are pH-sensitive, and buffers help maintain the optimal pH for drug efficacy and prevent degradation. Buffers also help control the pH of solutions used for injections or other drug delivery methods.
14. How does temperature affect buffer solutions?
Temperature affects buffer solutions by changing the pKa of the weak acid or base. As temperature increases, the pKa generally decreases, which can alter the pH of the buffer. Temperature changes can also affect the solubility of buffer components and the rate of chemical reactions within the buffer.
15. What is meant by the "working range" of a buffer?
The working range of a buffer is the pH range in which it effectively resists changes in pH. This range is typically within ±1 pH unit of the pKa of the weak acid or base used in the buffer. Outside this range, the buffer's effectiveness decreases significantly.
16. How do you choose the appropriate components for a buffer solution?
To choose appropriate buffer components, select a weak acid or base with a pKa close to the desired pH of the buffer (usually within 1 pH unit). The conjugate acid-base pair should be able to dissolve in the solvent and not react with other components in the solution. Consider also the buffer's intended use and any specific requirements of the system it will be used in.
17. How do you prepare a buffer solution with a specific pH?
To prepare a buffer solution with a specific pH:
18. What is the difference between a buffer solution and a neutral solution?
A buffer solution resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added, while a neutral solution (pH 7) does not necessarily have this ability. Buffers can be acidic, neutral, or basic, depending on their components. A neutral solution simply has an equal concentration of H+ and OH- ions.
19. Can a strong acid and its salt form a buffer solution? Why or why not?
No, a strong acid and its salt cannot form a buffer solution. Strong acids completely dissociate in water, so there is no weak acid to act as a proton donor. A buffer requires a weak acid or base that can exist in both its protonated and deprotonated forms in significant amounts.
20. How do buffer solutions relate to acid-base titrations?
Buffer solutions play a crucial role in acid-base titrations, particularly near the equivalence point. As the titration progresses, the solution temporarily becomes a buffer when the concentrations of the weak acid or base and its conjugate are roughly equal. This causes the pH to change slowly, creating the characteristic "buffer region" in the titration curve.
21. What is meant by "buffer exhaustion"?
Buffer exhaustion occurs when a buffer solution has neutralized so much added acid or base that it can no longer effectively resist pH changes. At this point, the ratio of acid to base in the buffer has been significantly altered, and further additions of acid or base will cause rapid pH changes.
22. How do polyprotic acids function in buffer solutions?
Polyprotic acids can form multiple buffer systems, one for each dissociation step. Each conjugate acid-base pair can act as a separate buffer, with its own pKa value. This allows polyprotic acids to create buffer solutions that are effective over a wider pH range than monoprotic acids.
23. Why is blood a good example of a buffer system in the human body?
Blood is an excellent example of a buffer system because it maintains a stable pH (around 7.4) despite constant additions of acids and bases from metabolic processes. The primary buffer in blood is the carbonic acid-bicarbonate system, which effectively resists pH changes to keep blood pH within a narrow, life-sustaining range.
24. How does the concept of Le Chatelier's principle apply to buffer solutions?
Le Chatelier's principle applies to buffer solutions in that when an external stress (like adding acid or base) is applied to the system, the buffer reacts to counteract this change. For example, when acid is added, the equilibrium shifts to produce more conjugate base, neutralizing the added acid and minimizing pH changes.
25. What is the significance of the pKa in buffer solutions?
The pKa is crucial in buffer solutions because it determines the pH range where the buffer is most effective. A buffer works best when the pH is within ±1 unit of the pKa. At the pKa, the concentrations of the weak acid and its conjugate base are equal, providing maximum buffering capacity.
26. How do buffer solutions differ from simple acid or base solutions in their response to dilution?
When a buffer solution is diluted, its pH changes very little because the ratio of acid to conjugate base remains constant, even as their concentrations decrease. In contrast, when simple acid or base solutions are diluted, their pH changes significantly due to the change in H+ or OH- concentration.
27. Can you explain the concept of a "universal buffer"?
A universal buffer is a mixture of several buffer systems that can maintain a relatively stable pH over a wide range. It typically contains multiple weak acids and their conjugate bases with different pKa values. This allows the universal buffer to resist pH changes across a broader pH range than a single buffer system.
28. How do buffer solutions impact chemical and biological reactions?
Buffer solutions impact chemical and biological reactions by maintaining a stable pH environment. Many reactions, especially those involving enzymes, are pH-sensitive. By keeping the pH constant, buffers ensure that reaction rates and equilibria remain consistent, which is crucial for many industrial processes and biological systems.
29. What is the role of buffers in environmental systems, such as oceans?
In environmental systems like oceans, buffers play a critical role in maintaining pH stability. Ocean water is buffered primarily by the carbonate system (H2CO3/HCO3-/CO32-). This buffering helps protect marine life from rapid pH changes that could be caused by factors like acid rain or increasing atmospheric CO2 levels.
30. How do you determine the buffer capacity experimentally?
Buffer capacity can be determined experimentally by performing a titration. Add small, known amounts of strong acid or base to the buffer and measure the resulting pH changes. The buffer capacity is typically expressed as the number of moles of acid or base that can be added to 1 liter of buffer before the pH changes by 1 unit.
31. What is the difference between an acidic buffer and a basic buffer?
An acidic buffer is made from a weak acid and its conjugate base, and it maintains a pH less than 7. A basic buffer is made from a weak base and its conjugate acid, and it maintains a pH greater than 7. The choice between acidic and basic buffers depends on the desired pH range for the specific application.
32. How do buffers in the human body differ from those in a laboratory setting?
Buffers in the human body are more complex systems than those typically used in laboratories. They often involve multiple buffer pairs working together (e.g., bicarbonate, phosphate, and protein buffers in blood). Body buffers must also function within narrow pH ranges and are constantly replenished or adjusted by physiological processes, unlike static laboratory buffers.
33. Can you explain the concept of a "good" buffer versus a "poor" buffer?
A "good" buffer effectively resists pH changes when small amounts of acid or base are added. It typically has roughly equal concentrations of the weak acid and its conjugate base, and the pKa of the acid is close to the desired pH. A "poor" buffer has components with concentrations that are very different from each other, or uses an acid with a pKa far from the target pH, making it less effective at resisting pH changes.
34. How do buffer solutions relate to the concept of pH indicators?
pH indicators are weak acids or bases that change color at specific pH values. In a buffer solution, the color of a pH indicator can help visually confirm that the buffer is maintaining the desired pH. However, adding too much indicator can affect the buffer's capacity, so care must be taken when using indicators in buffer solutions.
35. What is a Zwitterionic buffer and how does it work?
A Zwitterionic buffer contains molecules that have both positive and negative charges, but a net charge of zero. These buffers, like HEPES or MOPS, are often used in biological research because they don't interact significantly with metal ions or biological molecules. They work by accepting or donating protons to maintain a stable pH.
36. How do you calculate the change in pH of a buffer when a strong acid or base is added?
To calculate the pH change:
37. How do buffer solutions impact enzyme activity?
Buffer solutions are critical for enzyme activity because most enzymes function optimally within a narrow pH range. Buffers maintain this optimal pH, ensuring consistent enzyme activity even as the reaction produces or consumes H+ ions. Without a buffer, pH changes could significantly alter enzyme structure and function, potentially halting the reaction.
38. What is the role of buffers in gel electrophoresis?
In gel electrophoresis, buffers serve multiple purposes:
39. How do you choose between organic and inorganic buffer systems?
The choice between organic and inorganic buffer systems depends on the specific application:
40. What is buffer mismatch and why is it important to avoid?
Buffer mismatch occurs when the pH of a buffer significantly differs from the pKa of its weak acid or base component. This is important to avoid because:
41. How do solid buffers differ from liquid buffers?
Solid buffers, also known as lyophilized or freeze-dried buffers, are pre-measured, powdered forms of buffer components. They differ from liquid buffers in several ways:
42. What is the concept of buffer intensity and how is it measured?
Buffer intensity (β) is a measure of a buffer's resistance to pH change. It's defined as the amount of strong base (or acid) needed to change the pH of the buffer by one unit, divided by the volume of the buffer solution. Mathematically, β = dCb/dpH, where Cb is the concentration of strong base added. Buffer intensity is highest when the pH equals the pKa of the weak acid in the buffer.
43. How do buffers play a role in climate change and ocean acidification?
Oceans act as a massive buffer system, absorbing large amounts of CO2 from the atmosphere. This process helps mitigate climate change but leads to ocean acidification. The ocean's carbonate buffer system (H2CO3/HCO3-/CO32-) resists pH changes, but as more CO2 is absorbed, the buffer capacity is slowly overwhelmed, leading to decreasing pH. This pH decrease can have significant impacts on marine ecosystems, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons.
44. What is a Good's buffer and why are they important in biochemistry?
Good's buffers, named after Norman Good, are a series of zwitterionic organic chemical buffering agents that are particularly useful in biochemistry. They're important because:

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