Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Edited By Irshad Anwar | Updated on Jul 02, 2025 05:57 PM IST

Cells are the fundamental units of life, categorised into two main types: asexual and the two broad categories of cells, namely the prokaryotic and eukaryotic types of cells. Thus, the bacteria and archaea, called prokaryotic cells, do not contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while the plant, animal, and fungi cells and even some animal-like protists, called eukaryotic cells, contain these structures. This knowledge of cellular differences is crucial for biology students and applies to medicine, research, and biotechnology.

The organism is a collection of a population of cells, and each cell has having independent capacity to perform basic activities such as metabolic and reproductive mechanisms. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller and comparatively simpler not having a nuclear membrane and organelia while eukaryotic cells are larger and structurally complex; they contain a nuclear membrane along with several organelia each having a specific function. These differences show the variety of life forms and show how organisms can live in certain conditions/under certain conditions.

Detailed Comparison Table: Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

This comparison talks about the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, providing an overview of their structures and functions.

Feature	Prokaryotic Cells	Eukaryotic Cells
Capsule	Present in some bacteria for protection and adhesion	Generally absent, though some eukaryotes have similar structures (e.g., slime layers)
Nucleus	Absent; DNA in nucleoid region	Present; DNA enclosed within a nuclear envelope
Size	Typically 0.1-5.0 µm	Typically 10-100 µm
Organelles	No membrane-bound organelles	Membrane-bound organelles present (e.g., mitochondria, ER, Golgi apparatus)
DNA Structure	Circular DNA	Linear DNA
Ribosome Size	70S (smaller)	80S (larger)
Cell Division	Binary fission	Mitosis and meiosis
Cell Wall	Peptidoglycan (bacteria), varied in archaea	Cellulose (plants), chitin (fungi), absent in animal cells
Membrane-bound Nucleus	Absent	Present
Cytoskeleton	Simple structures	Complex network of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
Mitochondria	Absent	Present
Golgi Apparatus	Absent	Present
Lysosomes	Absent	Present
Peroxisomes	Absent	Present
Vacuoles	Small or absent	Large central vacuole in plants; small vacuoles in animals
Chloroplasts	Absent	Present in plants and some protists
Pili/Fimbriae	Present for adhesion and conjugation	Absent
Cilia	Absent	Present in some eukaryotic cells for movement and sensory functions
Cytoplasmic Streaming	Absent	Present in plant and fungal cells
Photosynthetic Apparatus	Present in some (e.g., cyanobacteria)	Present in chloroplasts of plants and algae
Introns in Genes	Rare	Common
Histones Associated with DNA	Absent (except in some archaea)	Present
RNA Processing	Minimal	Extensive (capping, splicing, polyadenylation)
Plasmids	Common	Rare, but present in some cases (e.g., yeast)
Reproduction	Asexual, primarily binary fission	Sexual and asexual, involving mitosis and meiosis

Prokaryotic Cells

In the previous discussion of the derivation of the term "prokaryote," it is now understood that "pro" is derived from the Greek word meaning before, and "karyon," meaning nut or kernel, which refers to the nucleus. Therefore, “prokaryote” can be translated as “before the nucleus,” and this points to the fact that such organisms do not possess a real nucleus.

It is a category of the simplest cells, mostly unicellular organisms with no membrane-bound nucleus or membrane-bounded organelle. They are characterized by their simple structure, which includes: They are characterised by their simple structure, which includes:

Simple structure: Prokaryotic cells are usually smaller and less complex than eukaryotic cells; they are not enclosed by a membrane.
Lack of nucleus: The DNA is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane, but it is located at a particular site in the cell known as a nucleoid.
Absence of membrane-bound organelles: Cell organelles or structures like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, etc., are not found in prokaryotic cells.

Detailed Structure of Prokaryotic Cells

The following describes the detailed structure of prokaryotic cells:-

Cell Membrane: The prokaryotic cell membrane or the cell membrane is made of the phospholipid layer that regulates the movement in and out of the cell substances to support homeostasis.
Cell Wall: In bacteria, the cell wall is mainly constituted by peptidoglycan which plays the role of giving mechanical support as well as a protection function. In archaea, the composition may differ, but it doesn’t have peptidoglycan inside of it.
Nucleoid: The organelle is nucleoid which is an irregular structure within the cell housing the genetic material of the cell. It does not develop a membrane that surrounds it.
Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm can be described as a jelly-like material of the cell that consists of water, enzymes, nutrients, waste products, and gases. It contains the ribosomes and is the location of most of the cellular activities.
Ribosomes: Prokaryotic ribosomes are of smaller size compared to the eukaryotic ribosomal ribosomes and have a sedimentation value of 70S, which is made up of 50S and 30S parts. They are involved in the topology of hair and are also involved in protein synthesis.

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External Structures

Flagella: Sensory and locomotive appendages in the form of long whips.
Pili and Fimbriae: It is used in attachment to various surfaces and conjugation-like hair-like structures.
Capsule: An outer skin-like structure that gives a protective tone as well as outer layer adhesion.

Functions of Prokaryotic Cells

Binary fission: The application of a type of asexual reproduction whereby a cell of an organism splits into two genetically similar cells.
Metabolism: Prokaryotic cells have multiple strategies of energy metabolism that are known as aerobic and anaerobic respiration, fermentations, and photosynthesis.
Genetic variation: It is done through conjugation (transfer of genetic material between bacteria), transformation (taking of foreign DNA), and transduction which is the transferring of genetic material through a bacteria virus.

Examples of Prokaryotic Cells

Bacteria: Some of the examples include Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus.
Archaea: Some examples that can be taken under this category are Methanogens and Halophiles.

Eukaryotic Cells

About the term “eukaryote”

The term eukaryote is derived from the Greek words 'eu' (true) and 'karyon' (nut or kernel), which refer to the nucleus. Therefore, such organisms possess a membrane-bound nucleus

Definition and Characteristics

Eukaryotic cells are complex, multicellular, or unicellular organisms characterised by the following features:

Complex structure: Rather than having a simple structure, eukaryotic cells are a lot bigger, having a complex internal structure with one or many organelles depending on the cell's functions.
Presence of a true nucleus: The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope which is located outside the nucleus.
Membrane-bound organelles: Some of the structures found at the sub-cellular level including the mitochondria endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus are enclosed in a membrane.
Detailed Structure of Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus: The nuclear envelope is a two-layer membrane that surrounds the nucleus and has openings referred to as nuclear pores. The nucleolus is the part of the nucleus where ribosome is synthesized. Chromatin contains the DNA and protein that condenses to form chromosomes during cell division.

Diagram: Structure of a Nucleus

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Cell Membrane: The cell membrane as a protective barrier is composed of phospholipid layered that has proteins that regulate the transport of molecules in and out of a cell along with acting as receptors.

Diagram: Cell Membrane Structure

1723466949157

Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton: Cytoplasm is a semi-fluid mass in the cell composed of water, food materials, and any other structures in the cell. The cytoskeleton is composed of protein fibers (microfilament, intermediate filament, micro thread) that give structural support, shape cytoplasm, and well as movement.
Organelles

Mitochondria: Mitochondria of the cell, synthesize ATP through the process of cell respiration. These organisms have a double membrane and their DNA.

Endoplasmic Reticulum: Ribosome at studded on the rough endoplasmic reticulum; manufactures and modifies proteins

Golgi Apparatus: Golgi apparatus changes and sorts proteins and lipids, and packs them for transportation

Lysosomes and Peroxisomes: Lysosomes have enzymes for breaking down macromolecules that are present in the food ingested by the organism. Peroxisomes Emulsify fats and foreign materials as well as perform the detoxifying function

Vacuoles: Big and membrane-bound structures consisting of reserve foods, and wastes, and mainly involved in the osmotic potential of a plant cell.

Chloroplasts (in plant cells): Sources of photosynthesis, include chlorophyll and a double membrane.

Diagram: Various Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells

1723466948307

Functions of Eukaryotic Cells
Cell division: Mitosis is the process of the formation of two alike daughter cells from one mother cell. Meiosis is the division that yields four genetically different daughter cells, which produce gametes.
Metabolism: Cellular respiration is the procedure of carrying out oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP from glucose in the mitochondria. Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy into chemical energy in the chlorophyll-containing pigmented organelles known as chloroplasts in plant cells.
Protein synthesis: Transcribing DNA to mRNA in the nucleus. At the ribosome, proteins are made using the information coded by the mRNA.
Cell signaling: Structures that comprise cells, tissues, and organs, which play a role in summoning other cells and molecules as well as in the overall regulation of cellular activities and the organism’s interaction with the surroundings.
Examples of Eukaryotic Cells
Animals: Singly and multiply organized forms of life such as human beings, and animals.
Plants: Complex forms of organisms commonly include; trees and flowers.
Fungi: Yeasts, moulds, mushrooms.
Protists: organisms such as amoebas, algae, or noncomplex organisms with one cell or a few cells.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What is a Prokaryotic cell?

A prokaryotic cell is a single and simple-headed cell that has no true nucleus or membrane-bounded organelles. Prokaryotic cells are less complex their DNA is not bound in a membrane but is found in the nucleoid region. The example of Prokaryotic organisms includes bacterial and archaeal organisms.

2. What is a Eukaryotic cell?

A eukaryotic cell is a cell that contains a true nucleus that is enclosed by a nuclear membrane and several other membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotic cells are much bigger than prokaryotic cells and can be a single or many-celled organism. Samples of eukaryotic organisms are animals, plants, fungi, and protists.

3. What is the difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells?

- Prokaryotic: No true nucleus which refers to the compartment of a bacterial cell encasing its DNA; instead it is found in the nucleoid region.

- Eukaryotic: This is located within a nuclear envelope which forms a true nucleus.

- Organelles :

- Prokaryotic: Non-membrane bound organelle is absent in its structure.

- Eukaryotic: Has membrane organelles such as the mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum.

- Size :

- Prokaryotic: Smaller. In a range of 1-10 micrometers.

- Eukaryotic: Coarser Graded (10-100 micrometers).

- DNA Structure :

- Prokaryotic: Circular DNA.

- Eukaryotic: Prokaryotic DNA is in the form of circular molecules while eukaryotic DNA is in the form of linear chromosomes.

- Reproduction :

- Prokaryotic: Binary fission.

- Eukaryotic: Cell division including mitosis and meiosis.

4. Who discovered Cell and Cell Theory?

Cell Discovery: The first cells were identified by Robert Hooke in 1665 while using a microscope on a piece of cork and the word cell originated from the hole.

- Cell Theory: The cell theory as a concept was formulated by Schleiden and Schwann in the early 30s of the nineteenth century. The theory states that:

- The basic unit of life is a cell and all living things are made up of one or more cells.

- In every living thing, there is an organization of structure at the smallest level which is called the cell.

- Lastly, all cells come from other existing cells a concept widely credited to Rudolf Virchow and proposed in 1855.

5. List out the unique features of Animal and Plant Cells.

Animal Cells :

- Lack of cell walls.

- Have centrioles participate in the division of a cell.

- Contain lysosome for digesting the food particles.

- Lacks or possesses very small-sized vacuoles.

Plant Cells :

- They usually have cell walls primarily composed of cellulose.

- Zinc containing chloroplasts is required for photosynthesis.

- Ability to store substances in large cv and also maintain turgidity pressure.

- Plasmodesmata for intercellular exchange of information.

6. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to compartmentalize cellular processes?

Eukaryotic cells can compartmentalize various cellular processes in different organelles, allowing for more efficient and specialized functions. Prokaryotic cells, lacking membrane-bound organelles, perform most cellular processes in the cytoplasm.

7. What are ribosomes, and how do they differ between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Ribosomes are cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. While both cell types have ribosomes, prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller (70S) compared to eukaryotic ribosomes (80S). Eukaryotic cells also have ribosomes attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

8. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their chromosome number?

Prokaryotic cells typically have a single circular chromosome. Eukaryotic cells usually have multiple linear chromosomes, with the number varying among species (e.g., humans have 23 pairs).

9. What is the difference in cell membrane composition between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

While both cell types have phospholipid bilayer membranes, eukaryotic cell membranes contain cholesterol, which provides additional stability. Prokaryotic cell membranes lack cholesterol but may contain other sterols.

10. What is the difference in the cytoskeleton structure between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells have a well-developed cytoskeleton composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Prokaryotic cells have cytoskeletal elements, but they are less complex and diverse than those in eukaryotes.

11. What is the fundamental difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

The fundamental difference is the presence of a membrane-bound nucleus. Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus, with their genetic material floating freely in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic cells have a distinct nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane, which houses and protects their DNA.

12. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their genetic material organization?

In prokaryotic cells, the genetic material (DNA) is typically a single circular chromosome located in the nucleoid region. Eukaryotic cells have multiple linear chromosomes contained within the nucleus, along with histone proteins that help package the DNA.

13. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in terms of internal compartmentalization?

Prokaryotic cells have a simpler internal structure with no membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotic cells have numerous membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus, which compartmentalize various cellular functions.

14. What is the cell wall composition difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Prokaryotic cells typically have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan. Eukaryotic cell walls, when present (e.g., in plant cells), are usually composed of cellulose. Many eukaryotic cells, like animal cells, lack a cell wall entirely.

15. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform photosynthesis?

Photosynthetic prokaryotes (like cyanobacteria) perform photosynthesis using thylakoid membranes in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic plant cells have specialized organelles called chloroplasts that contain thylakoid membranes for photosynthesis.

16. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform photosynthesis?

Both types can perform photosynthesis, but eukaryotic cells (like plants and algae) use specialized organelles called chloroplasts. Photosynthetic prokaryotes (like cyanobacteria) use thylakoid membranes in the cytoplasm.

17. What is the difference in the presence of plasmids between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Plasmids, small circular DNA molecules separate from the main chromosome, are common in prokaryotic cells. They are rare in eukaryotic cells, mainly found in some lower eukaryotes like yeast.

18. What is the difference in protein synthesis locations between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

In prokaryotic cells, protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm as soon as mRNA is produced. In eukaryotic cells, transcription (mRNA production) occurs in the nucleus, while translation (protein synthesis) happens in the cytoplasm or on the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

19. What is the difference in RNA processing between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

In prokaryotic cells, mRNA is used for translation immediately after transcription. In eukaryotic cells, mRNA undergoes extensive processing in the nucleus, including splicing to remove introns, before being transported to the cytoplasm for translation.

20. What is the difference in the location of DNA replication between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

In prokaryotic cells, DNA replication occurs in the cytoplasm. In eukaryotic cells, DNA replication takes place within the nucleus.

21. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform cellular respiration?

Both cell types can perform cellular respiration, but eukaryotic cells have specialized organelles (mitochondria) for this process. Prokaryotic cells perform respiration using their cell membrane or through enzymes in the cytoplasm.

22. Which cell type is generally larger: prokaryotic or eukaryotic?

Eukaryotic cells are generally larger than prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells typically range from 10-100 micrometers in diameter, while prokaryotic cells are usually 0.1-5 micrometers in diameter.

23. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their method of cell division?

Prokaryotic cells divide through binary fission, a simpler process where the cell duplicates its contents and splits in two. Eukaryotic cells undergo mitosis, a more complex process involving distinct phases and the separation of replicated chromosomes.

24. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their energy production processes?

Prokaryotic cells perform cellular respiration in the cell membrane or in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic cells have specialized organelles called mitochondria that are responsible for most of the cell's energy production through cellular respiration.

25. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to engulf particles or other cells?

Eukaryotic cells can perform endocytosis and phagocytosis, processes that allow them to engulf particles or other cells. Prokaryotic cells generally cannot perform these processes due to their rigid cell wall and lack of specialized membrane-bound organelles.

26. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to modify proteins after synthesis?

Eukaryotic cells have a more extensive system for post-translational modifications of proteins, often occurring in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Prokaryotic cells have limited ability to modify proteins after synthesis.

27. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their response to environmental stress?

Prokaryotic cells often respond to stress by forming endospores, a dormant and resistant structure. Eukaryotic cells have more complex stress responses, including the production of heat shock proteins and activation of specific gene expression programs.

28. What is the difference in the cell division process between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Prokaryotic cells divide through binary fission, a relatively simple process. Eukaryotic cells undergo mitosis, a more complex process involving chromosome condensation, spindle formation, and cytokinesis.

29. What is the difference in gene regulation complexity between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells have more complex gene regulation mechanisms, including epigenetic modifications, alternative splicing, and multiple levels of transcriptional control. Prokaryotic gene regulation is generally simpler, often involving operons and fewer regulatory elements.

30. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform sexual reproduction?

Eukaryotic cells can engage in sexual reproduction, involving the fusion of gametes. Prokaryotic cells can exchange genetic material through processes like conjugation, but this is not true sexual reproduction.

31. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to form specialized tissues?

Eukaryotic cells can differentiate into various specialized cell types, forming complex tissues and organs. Prokaryotic cells generally do not differentiate or form specialized tissues.

32. What is the difference in the presence of peroxisomes between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells contain peroxisomes, organelles involved in breaking down fatty acids and detoxifying harmful substances. Prokaryotic cells lack peroxisomes.

33. What is the difference in the presence of flagella between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Both cell types can have flagella, but their structure differs. Prokaryotic flagella are simpler, composed of flagellin protein. Eukaryotic flagella are more complex, with a 9+2 microtubule arrangement.

34. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform cellular differentiation?

Eukaryotic cells can undergo cellular differentiation, becoming specialized for specific functions in multicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells generally do not differentiate into specialized cell types.

35. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform autophagy?

Eukaryotic cells can perform autophagy, a process of breaking down and recycling cellular components using lysosomes. Prokaryotic cells, lacking lysosomes, do not perform autophagy in the same way.

36. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to form multicellular organisms?

Eukaryotic cells are capable of forming complex multicellular organisms with specialized tissues and organs. Prokaryotic cells can form simple multicellular structures (like bacterial colonies) but do not develop into complex multicellular organisms.

37. What is the difference in the presence of introns between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genes?

Eukaryotic genes typically contain introns, non-coding sequences that are removed during mRNA processing. Prokaryotic genes generally lack introns and consist mainly of coding sequences.

38. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform meiosis?

Eukaryotic cells can undergo meiosis, a specialized type of cell division that produces gametes with half the normal chromosome number. Prokaryotic cells do not perform meiosis and reproduce asexually.

39. What is the difference in the presence of a nucleolus between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells have a nucleolus, a structure within the nucleus where ribosomal RNA is synthesized and ribosomal subunits are assembled. Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleolus.

40. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform vesicular transport?

Eukaryotic cells have an extensive system of vesicular transport, using vesicles to move materials between organelles and to/from the cell membrane. Prokaryotic cells, lacking membrane-bound organelles, do not use vesicular transport.

41. What is the difference in the presence of lysosomes between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells contain lysosomes, membrane-bound organelles filled with digestive enzymes for breaking down cellular waste and foreign materials. Prokaryotic cells lack lysosomes.

42. What is the difference in the presence of a cytoplasmic streaming between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells, especially plant cells, exhibit cytoplasmic streaming, the movement of cytoplasm within the cell. This process is not observed in prokaryotic cells due to their simpler internal structure.

43. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform endocytosis and exocytosis?

Eukaryotic cells can perform endocytosis (taking in materials) and exocytosis (expelling materials) using vesicles. Prokaryotic cells generally cannot perform these processes due to their rigid cell wall and lack of membrane-bound organelles.

44. What is the difference in the presence of centrioles between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Many eukaryotic cells contain centrioles, structures involved in cell division and the formation of cilia and flagella. Prokaryotic cells lack centrioles.

45. What is the difference in the presence of a vacuole between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Many eukaryotic cells, especially plant cells, have large central vacuoles for storage and maintaining cell turgor. Prokaryotic cells may have small vacuoles, but they lack the large, prominent vacuoles found in many eukaryotes.

46. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform aerobic respiration?

Both cell types can perform aerobic respiration, but eukaryotic cells have specialized organelles (mitochondria) for this process. Prokaryotic cells perform aerobic respiration using their cell membrane or through enzymes in the cytoplasm.

47. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform intracellular digestion?

Eukaryotic cells can perform intracellular digestion using lysosomes. Prokaryotic cells lack lysosomes and generally do not perform intracellular digestion in the same way.

48. What is the difference in the presence of a Golgi apparatus between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells have a Golgi apparatus, an organelle involved in modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins for secretion or use within the cell. Prokaryotic cells lack a Golgi apparatus.

49. What is the difference in the presence of a nuclear pore complex between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells have nuclear pore complexes in their nuclear membrane, regulating the transport of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Prokaryotic cells lack a nuclear membrane and thus have no nuclear pore complexes.

50. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform glycolysis?

Both cell types can perform glycolysis, but in eukaryotic cells, it occurs in the cytoplasm. In prokaryotic cells, glycolysis and other metabolic processes occur in the cytoplasm without compartmentalization.

51. What is the difference in the presence of telomeres between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells have telomeres, repetitive DNA sequences at the ends of linear chromosomes that protect them from degradation. Prokaryotic cells, with their circular chromosomes, do not have telomeres.

52. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform protein folding?

Eukaryotic cells have specialized compartments like the endoplasmic reticulum for protein folding and can use chaperone proteins. Prokaryotic cells perform protein folding in the cytoplasm, with a more limited set of chaperone proteins.

53. What is the difference in the presence of a cell cortex between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells often have a cell cortex, a specialized layer of cytoplasm just beneath the plasma membrane. Prokaryotic cells lack this specialized cortex structure.

54. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in their ability to perform signal transduction?

Both cell types can perform signal transduction, but eukaryotic cells have more complex signaling pathways involving multiple organelles. Prokaryotic signaling is generally simpler and occurs mainly at the cell membrane.

55. What is the difference in the presence of histones between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells have histones, proteins that help package DNA into chromatin. Prokaryotic cells generally lack histones, although some archaea have histone-like proteins.